Health Risk Assessment of PAHs from Wheat (Tritcum specie) Bambara Nut (Vigna subterranea) and Pigeon Peas (Cajanus cajanifolia) Consumed in Nigeria
European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety,
Page 39-49
DOI:
10.9734/ejnfs/2022/v14i121280
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs are carcinogenic and genotoxic in nature and have been of worldwide concern. This study aimed at determining the PAH contamination levels in types of wheat (Tritcum specie), bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) and pigeon peas (Cajanus cajanifolia) commonly consumed in the eastern part of Nigeria and assess the health risk associated with their consumption. The grain samples were analyzed of sixteen priority PAHs using gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detector, GC-FID after extraction by sonication. Estimation of daily intakes were carried out using adult male and female consumers while margin of exposure was used to assess the health risk applying bench mark dose levels for the indicators-BaP, PAH2, PAH4 and PAH8. The sixteen PAHs were detected in all the analyzed grains. The ∑16 PAHs concentrations (× 10¯²µg/kg) detected ranged from 25.004±20.553 in white pigeon peas to 36.493±20.305 in red pigeon peas. The eight probable carcinogenic PAHs (∑PAH8) detected ranged from 10.913±4.295 to 17.444±7.023 also in white and red pigeon peas respectively. From the estimation of daily intake calculated, the total dietary exposure of male (41.42 µg/kg bw/day) was less than that of female (48.24 µg/kg bw/day) implying that adult female are more exposed. The MOE for adult male individual ranged from 49,893 in pure white bambara groundnut to 392,943 in pigeon peas. While for adult female individual, the values of MOE ranged from 48,110 in bambara groundnut to 336,770 in pigeon peas. The values of margin of MOE obtained for all the indicators were much higher than 10000 which according to EFSA indicate low concern for human health and considered low priority for risk management actions. The PAHs values detected were all below 1.0 µg/kg which is the permissible limit established by EFSA. Based on these facts, these grains are safe for consumption.
Keywords:
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
- bambara groundnut
- wheat
- estimated daily intake
- margin of exposure
- gas chromatography
How to Cite
Odika, I. M., Okoye, C. B., Odionyenma, O. M., Aduaka, C. N., & Nwankwo, N. V. (2022). Health Risk Assessment of PAHs from Wheat (Tritcum specie) Bambara Nut (Vigna subterranea) and Pigeon Peas (Cajanus cajanifolia) Consumed in Nigeria. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety, 14(12), 39-49. https://doi.org/10.9734/ejnfs/2022/v14i121280
References
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Escarrone AL, Caldas SS, Furlong EB, Meneghetti VL, Fagundes CA, Arias JL, Primel EG. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rice grain dried by different processes: Evaluation of a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe extraction method. Food Chemistry. 2014; 1(146):597-602.
Bertinetti IA, Ferreira CD, Monks JLF, Sanches Filho PJ, Elias MC. Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsin rice subjected to drying with different fuels plus temperature, industrial processes and cooking. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2018;66:109-115.
Akan JC, Dawa JY, Bukar LI, Muhammed Z. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different varieties of Rice (Oryza sativa) from Yobe state Nigeria. Environment and Pollution. 2018;7(2):21-31.
Ifeoma Maryrose Odika, Gloria Chinenye Nwanisobi, Uche Virginia Okpala, Evangeline Chinyere Obi-uchendu, Mediatrix Obiageli Odionyenma. Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination levels in underutilized grains (guinea corn, pigeon peas and bambara nut) in South East Nigeria. American Journal of Applied Chemistry. 2022;10(2):43-47.
Muntean N, Muntean E, Duda M. Contamination of some plant origin food products with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Bulletin UASMV Serie Agriculture. 2013;70(2):383-386.
Olabemiwo OM. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled/roasted maize and plantain sold in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences. 2013;13(3):87-93.
Olabemiwo OM, Tella AC, Omodara NB, Esan AO, Alabede Oladapo. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in three local snacks in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. American Journal of Food and Nutrition. 2013;3(2):90-97.
Embbey KO, Chukwujindu MA, Ajogungbe EE, Godswill OT. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and metal concentrations in imported canned maize. Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology. 2015;3(1):53-58.
De Lima RF, Reichert Junior FW. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in corn grains submitted to drying with firewood. Food Chemistry. 2017;215:165-170
Al-Rashdan A, Murad H, Ahmed N, Ibtisam A, Al-Ballam Z. Determination of the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in toasted bread using gas chromatography mass spectrometry. International Journal of Analytical Chemistry; 2010. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/ 2010/821216 Access on 2010-6-21.
Udowelle NA, Igweze ZN, Asomugha RN, Orisakwe OE. Health risk assessment and dietary exposure of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead and cadmium from bread consumed in Nigeria. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny. 2017; 68(3):269-280. Available:http://wydawnictwa.pzh.gov.pl/roczniki_pzh/
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Ogbonna I, Nwaocha K. Determination of levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on singed cowhide (punmo) and charcoal grilled meat (suya). Archives of Applied Science Research, 2015;7(4):1-6.
Eze C. Woko, Ibegbulem CO, Chinwe S. Alisi. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals and derivable metabolic water and energy of cattle hides (Kanda) processed by Singeing; 2020.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.18.994962
Mottier P, Parisod V, Turesky RJ. Quantitative determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in barbecued meat sausages by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2000;48(4):1160–1166.
Rozentale I, Stumpe-Viksna I, Zac D, Siksna SI, Melngaile A, Bartke vics V.”Assessment of dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from smoked meat products produced in Latvia” Food Control. 2015;54:16-22.
Pau Lian Peng, Lee Hoon Lim. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sample preparation and analysis: A review. Food Analytical Methods. 2022;15:1042-1061.
Iwegbue CM, Edeme JN, Tesi GO, Bassey FI, Markincigh BS, Nwajei GE. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in commercially available infant formulae in Nigeria: Estimation of dietary intakes and risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol. 2014;72:221-227.
DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.06.026
Johnson YS. Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in edible seafood by QuEChERS-based extraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Food Science. 2012;77(7):131–137.
Forsberg ND, Wilson GR. Anderson KA. Determination of parent and substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in high-fat salmon using a modified QuEChERS extraction, dispersive SPE and GC–MS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(15):8108–8116.
Ramalhosa MJ, Paíga P, Morais S, Delerue-Matos C, Oliveira M. Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish: evaluation of a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction method. Journal of Separation Science. 2009;32(20):3529–3538.
Jánská M, Tomaniová M, Hajšlová J, Kocourek V. Optimization of the procedure for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives in fish tissue: Estimation of measurements uncertainty. Food Additives and Contaminants. 2006;23(3):309–325.
Hassan J, Farahani A. GC–MS determination of PAHs in fish samples following salting-out-assisted solvent extraction-gel permeation chromatography. Chromatographia. 2011;74:477–482.
Amos-Tautua BMM, Inengite AK, Abasi CY, Amirize GC. Evaluation of polycyclic hydrocarbons and some heavy metals in roasted food snacks in Amassoma Niger Delta Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2013;7(10):961-966.
Viegas O, Novo P, Pinho O, Ferreira IM. A comparison of the extraction procedures and quantification methods for the chromatographic determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal grilled meat and fish. Talanta. 2012;88:677–683.
Nwaichi Euchari O, Agbam Promise, Iwu PI. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some trace metals in yam, cassava, orange and papaya from two oil and gas flaring impacted communities in Southern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2017;21(16): 1057
Pau Lian Peng, Lee Hoon Lim. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sample preparation and analysis: A review. Food Analytical Methods. 2022;15:1042-1061.
Camargo MC, Antoniolli PR, Eduardo V. HPLC-FLD simultaneous determination of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Validation of an analytical procedure for soybean oils. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 2011;22(7): 1354-1361.
Veyrand B, Brosseaud A, Sarcher L, Varlet V, Monteau F, Marchand P, Andre F, Le Bizec B. Innovative method for determination of 19 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food and oil samples using gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry based on an isotope dilution approach. Journal of Chromatography. 2007;1149(2):333–344.
Hossain MA, Salehuddin SM. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in edible oils by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy. Arabian Journal. 2012;5(3):391-396.
Lee JG, Suh JH, Yoon HJ. Occurrence and risk characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in edible oils by margin of exposure (MOE) approach. Appl Biol Chem. 2019;62:51.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1186/513765-019-0454-0
Tuteja G, Rout C, Bishnoi N. Quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in leafy and underground vegetable. A case study of panipat city. Haryana Indian J Environ Sci Technol. 2011;4:611- 620.
Wennrich L, Popp P, Zeibig M. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon burden in fruit and vegetables species cultivated in allotments in an industrial area. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2001;82:677-690.
Wang X, Sun S, Ma H, Liu Y. Sources and distribution of aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in Sediments of Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao, China. Marine Pollutant Bulletin. 2006;52(2):129–138.
Hillocks RJ, Bennett C, Mponda OM. Bambara nut: A review of utilization, market potential and crop improvement. African Crop Sci J. 2012;20:1-16
Aziman Halimi R, Barkla BJ, Mayes S. King GJ. The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna Subterranea) for nutritional food security. J Food Compos Anal. 2019;77:47-59.
Mbosso C, Boulay B, Padulosi S, Meldrum G, Mohamadou Y,Niang AB, et al. Fonio and bambara groundnut value chains in Mali: Issues, needs and opportunities for their sustainable promotion. Sustain. 2020;12:4766.
DOI: 10.3390/su12114766
Adu-Gyamfi, Joseph J, Myaka Fidelis A, Sakala Webster D, Odgaard Rie, Vesterager Jens M, Jensen Henning Høgh. "Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrogen and phosphorus budgets in farmer-managed intercrops of maize-pigeon pea in Semi-Arid Southern and Eastern Africa". Plant and Soil. 2007; 295(1–2):127–136.
DOI:10.1007/s11104-007-9270-0
Heuzé V, Thiollet H, Tran G, Delagarde R, Bastianelli D, Lebas F. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) seeds. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO; 2017.
Available:https://www.feedipedia.org/node/329
Shewny PR. Wheat. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2009;60(5):1537-1553.
Wheat Production, Types, Nutrition, Uses and Facts.
Available:https://www.britannica.com> plant Access on 2022-8-17
International Agency for Research on cancer, IARC. Some non-teterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures. IARC monograph on Evaluation of carcinogenic risk to human. 2010;92.
Hiba-Abdalla M. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food samples: Methods of extraction- A review. International Journal of current research. 2015;7(12):23603-23606.
Kroes R, Muller D, Lambe J, Lowik MRH, Van Klaveren J, Kleiner J, et al. Assessment of intake from the diet. Food Chem Toxicol. 2002;40(2-3):327-385.
Average body weight of a Nigerian weight of a man and a woman in kg in Nigeria; 2020.
Available:https://nimedhealth.com.ng>average. Access on 2022-5-11
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO). Safety evaluation of certain food additive and contaminants. (WHO food additive series n. 58).Geneva: FAO/WHO. 2007:209-267.
Yunker MB, Macdonald RW, Vingarzan R, Mitchell RH, Goyette D, Sylvestre S. PAHs in the fraser river basin: A critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Organic Geochemistry. 2002;33(4):489–515.
European Food Safety Authority, EFSA. Opinion of the scientific committee on a request from EFSA related to a harmonized approach for risk assessment of substances which are both genotoxic and carcinogenic. Euro Food Saf Auth J. 2005;282:1-31.
Odika IM, Okoye COB. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs contamination levelsin Nigeria staple grains. International Journal of Innovative Science Research Technology. 2018;3(10):752-757
Escarrone AL, Caldas SS, Furlong EB, Meneghetti VL, Fagundes CA, Arias JL, Primel EG. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rice grain dried by different processes: Evaluation of a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe extraction method. Food Chemistry. 2014; 1(146):597-602.
Bertinetti IA, Ferreira CD, Monks JLF, Sanches Filho PJ, Elias MC. Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsin rice subjected to drying with different fuels plus temperature, industrial processes and cooking. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2018;66:109-115.
Akan JC, Dawa JY, Bukar LI, Muhammed Z. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different varieties of Rice (Oryza sativa) from Yobe state Nigeria. Environment and Pollution. 2018;7(2):21-31.
Ifeoma Maryrose Odika, Gloria Chinenye Nwanisobi, Uche Virginia Okpala, Evangeline Chinyere Obi-uchendu, Mediatrix Obiageli Odionyenma. Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination levels in underutilized grains (guinea corn, pigeon peas and bambara nut) in South East Nigeria. American Journal of Applied Chemistry. 2022;10(2):43-47.
Muntean N, Muntean E, Duda M. Contamination of some plant origin food products with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Bulletin UASMV Serie Agriculture. 2013;70(2):383-386.
Olabemiwo OM. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled/roasted maize and plantain sold in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences. 2013;13(3):87-93.
Olabemiwo OM, Tella AC, Omodara NB, Esan AO, Alabede Oladapo. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in three local snacks in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. American Journal of Food and Nutrition. 2013;3(2):90-97.
Embbey KO, Chukwujindu MA, Ajogungbe EE, Godswill OT. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and metal concentrations in imported canned maize. Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology. 2015;3(1):53-58.
De Lima RF, Reichert Junior FW. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in corn grains submitted to drying with firewood. Food Chemistry. 2017;215:165-170
Al-Rashdan A, Murad H, Ahmed N, Ibtisam A, Al-Ballam Z. Determination of the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in toasted bread using gas chromatography mass spectrometry. International Journal of Analytical Chemistry; 2010. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/ 2010/821216 Access on 2010-6-21.
Udowelle NA, Igweze ZN, Asomugha RN, Orisakwe OE. Health risk assessment and dietary exposure of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead and cadmium from bread consumed in Nigeria. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny. 2017; 68(3):269-280. Available:http://wydawnictwa.pzh.gov.pl/roczniki_pzh/
Ihedioha NJ, Okali EE, Ekere NR, Ezeofor CC. Risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in pasta products consumed in Nigeria. Iran J Toxicol. 2019;13(1):19-26.
Ogbonna I, Nwaocha K. Determination of levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on singed cowhide (punmo) and charcoal grilled meat (suya). Archives of Applied Science Research, 2015;7(4):1-6.
Eze C. Woko, Ibegbulem CO, Chinwe S. Alisi. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals and derivable metabolic water and energy of cattle hides (Kanda) processed by Singeing; 2020.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.18.994962
Mottier P, Parisod V, Turesky RJ. Quantitative determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in barbecued meat sausages by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2000;48(4):1160–1166.
Rozentale I, Stumpe-Viksna I, Zac D, Siksna SI, Melngaile A, Bartke vics V.”Assessment of dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from smoked meat products produced in Latvia” Food Control. 2015;54:16-22.
Pau Lian Peng, Lee Hoon Lim. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sample preparation and analysis: A review. Food Analytical Methods. 2022;15:1042-1061.
Iwegbue CM, Edeme JN, Tesi GO, Bassey FI, Markincigh BS, Nwajei GE. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in commercially available infant formulae in Nigeria: Estimation of dietary intakes and risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol. 2014;72:221-227.
DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.06.026
Johnson YS. Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in edible seafood by QuEChERS-based extraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Food Science. 2012;77(7):131–137.
Forsberg ND, Wilson GR. Anderson KA. Determination of parent and substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in high-fat salmon using a modified QuEChERS extraction, dispersive SPE and GC–MS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(15):8108–8116.
Ramalhosa MJ, Paíga P, Morais S, Delerue-Matos C, Oliveira M. Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish: evaluation of a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction method. Journal of Separation Science. 2009;32(20):3529–3538.
Jánská M, Tomaniová M, Hajšlová J, Kocourek V. Optimization of the procedure for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives in fish tissue: Estimation of measurements uncertainty. Food Additives and Contaminants. 2006;23(3):309–325.
Hassan J, Farahani A. GC–MS determination of PAHs in fish samples following salting-out-assisted solvent extraction-gel permeation chromatography. Chromatographia. 2011;74:477–482.
Amos-Tautua BMM, Inengite AK, Abasi CY, Amirize GC. Evaluation of polycyclic hydrocarbons and some heavy metals in roasted food snacks in Amassoma Niger Delta Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2013;7(10):961-966.
Viegas O, Novo P, Pinho O, Ferreira IM. A comparison of the extraction procedures and quantification methods for the chromatographic determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal grilled meat and fish. Talanta. 2012;88:677–683.
Nwaichi Euchari O, Agbam Promise, Iwu PI. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some trace metals in yam, cassava, orange and papaya from two oil and gas flaring impacted communities in Southern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2017;21(16): 1057
Pau Lian Peng, Lee Hoon Lim. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sample preparation and analysis: A review. Food Analytical Methods. 2022;15:1042-1061.
Camargo MC, Antoniolli PR, Eduardo V. HPLC-FLD simultaneous determination of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Validation of an analytical procedure for soybean oils. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 2011;22(7): 1354-1361.
Veyrand B, Brosseaud A, Sarcher L, Varlet V, Monteau F, Marchand P, Andre F, Le Bizec B. Innovative method for determination of 19 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food and oil samples using gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry based on an isotope dilution approach. Journal of Chromatography. 2007;1149(2):333–344.
Hossain MA, Salehuddin SM. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in edible oils by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy. Arabian Journal. 2012;5(3):391-396.
Lee JG, Suh JH, Yoon HJ. Occurrence and risk characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in edible oils by margin of exposure (MOE) approach. Appl Biol Chem. 2019;62:51.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1186/513765-019-0454-0
Tuteja G, Rout C, Bishnoi N. Quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in leafy and underground vegetable. A case study of panipat city. Haryana Indian J Environ Sci Technol. 2011;4:611- 620.
Wennrich L, Popp P, Zeibig M. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon burden in fruit and vegetables species cultivated in allotments in an industrial area. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2001;82:677-690.
Wang X, Sun S, Ma H, Liu Y. Sources and distribution of aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in Sediments of Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao, China. Marine Pollutant Bulletin. 2006;52(2):129–138.
Hillocks RJ, Bennett C, Mponda OM. Bambara nut: A review of utilization, market potential and crop improvement. African Crop Sci J. 2012;20:1-16
Aziman Halimi R, Barkla BJ, Mayes S. King GJ. The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna Subterranea) for nutritional food security. J Food Compos Anal. 2019;77:47-59.
Mbosso C, Boulay B, Padulosi S, Meldrum G, Mohamadou Y,Niang AB, et al. Fonio and bambara groundnut value chains in Mali: Issues, needs and opportunities for their sustainable promotion. Sustain. 2020;12:4766.
DOI: 10.3390/su12114766
Adu-Gyamfi, Joseph J, Myaka Fidelis A, Sakala Webster D, Odgaard Rie, Vesterager Jens M, Jensen Henning Høgh. "Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrogen and phosphorus budgets in farmer-managed intercrops of maize-pigeon pea in Semi-Arid Southern and Eastern Africa". Plant and Soil. 2007; 295(1–2):127–136.
DOI:10.1007/s11104-007-9270-0
Heuzé V, Thiollet H, Tran G, Delagarde R, Bastianelli D, Lebas F. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) seeds. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO; 2017.
Available:https://www.feedipedia.org/node/329
Shewny PR. Wheat. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2009;60(5):1537-1553.
Wheat Production, Types, Nutrition, Uses and Facts.
Available:https://www.britannica.com> plant Access on 2022-8-17
International Agency for Research on cancer, IARC. Some non-teterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures. IARC monograph on Evaluation of carcinogenic risk to human. 2010;92.
Hiba-Abdalla M. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food samples: Methods of extraction- A review. International Journal of current research. 2015;7(12):23603-23606.
Kroes R, Muller D, Lambe J, Lowik MRH, Van Klaveren J, Kleiner J, et al. Assessment of intake from the diet. Food Chem Toxicol. 2002;40(2-3):327-385.
Average body weight of a Nigerian weight of a man and a woman in kg in Nigeria; 2020.
Available:https://nimedhealth.com.ng>average. Access on 2022-5-11
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO). Safety evaluation of certain food additive and contaminants. (WHO food additive series n. 58).Geneva: FAO/WHO. 2007:209-267.
Yunker MB, Macdonald RW, Vingarzan R, Mitchell RH, Goyette D, Sylvestre S. PAHs in the fraser river basin: A critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Organic Geochemistry. 2002;33(4):489–515.
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